Lithium ion batteries with titania/graphene anodes

ABSTRACT

Lithium ion batteries having an anode comprising at least one graphene layer in electrical communication with titania to form a nanocomposite material, a cathode comprising a lithium olivine structure, and an electrolyte. The graphene layer has a carbon to oxygen ratio of between 15 to 1 and 500 to 1 and a surface area of between 400 and 2630 m 2 /g. The nanocomposite material has a specific capacity at least twice that of a titania material without graphene material at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 10 C. The olivine structure of the cathode of the lithium ion battery of the present invention is LiMPO 4  where M is selected from the group consisting of Fe, Mn, Co, Ni and combinations thereof.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation in part of U.S. Ser. No. 12/460,993 filed Jul. 27, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. ______ which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/084,140 filed Jul. 28, 2008, entitled Metal Oxide-Graphene Hybrid Nanostructures and Method of Making.

The invention was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC0676RLO 1830, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to nanocomposite materials of graphene in electrical communication with metal oxides and methods for forming nanocomposite materials of graphene in electrical communication with metal oxides.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Graphene is generally described as a one-atom-thick planar sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice. The carbon-carbon bond length in graphene is approximately 0.142 nm. Graphene is the basic structural element of some carbon allotropes including graphite, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. Graphene exhibits unique properties, such as very high strength and very high conductivity. Those having ordinary skill in the art recognize that many types of materials and devices may be improved if graphene is successfully incorporated into those materials and devices, thereby allowing them to take advantage of graphene's unique properties. Thus, those having ordinary skill in the art recognize the need for new methods of fabricating graphene and composite materials that incorporated graphene.

Graphene has been produced by a variety of techniques. For example, graphene is produced by the chemical reduction of graphene oxide, as shown in Gomez-Navarro, C.; Weitz, R. T.; Bittner, A. M.; Scolari, M.; Mews, A.; Burghard, M.; Kern, K. Electronic Transport Properties of Individual Chemically Reduced Graphene Oxide Sheets. and Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 3499-3503.Si, Y.; Samulski, E. T. Synthesis of Water Soluble Graphene. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 1679-1682.

While the resultant product shown in the forgoing methods is generally described as graphene, it is clear from the specific capacity of these materials that complete reduction is not achieved, because the resultant materials do not approach the theoretical specific capacity of neat graphene. Accordingly, at least a portion of the graphene is not reduced, and the resultant material contains at least some graphene oxide. As used herein, the term “graphene” should be understood to encompass materials such as these, that contain both graphene and small amounts of graphene oxide.

For example, functionalized graphene sheets (FGSs) prepared through the thermal expansion of graphite oxide as shown in McAllister, M. J.; LiO, J. L.; Adamson, D. H.; Schniepp, H. C.; Abdala, A. A.; Liu, J.; Herrera-Alonso, M.; Milius, D. L.; CarO, R.; Prud'homme, R. K.; Aksay, I. A. Single Sheet Functionalized Graphene by Oxidation and Thermal Expansion of Graphite. Chem. Mater. 2007, 19, 4396-4404 and Schniepp, H. C.; Li, J. L.; McAllister, M. J.; Sai, H.; Herrera-Alonso, M.; Adamson, D. H.; Prud'homme, R. K.; Car, R.; Saville, D. A.; Aksay, I. A. Functionalized Single Graphene Sheets Derived from Splitting Graphite Oxide. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 8535-8539 have been shown to have tunable C/O ratios ranging from 10 to 500. The term “graphene” as used herein should be understood to include both pure graphene and graphene with small amounts of graphene oxide, as is the case with these materials.

Further, while graphene is generally described as a one-atom-thick planar sheet densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice, these one-atom-thick planar sheets are typically produced as part of an amalgamation of materials, often including materials with defects in the crystal lattice. For example, pentagonal and heptagonal cells constitute defects. If an isolated pentagonal cell is present, then the plane warps into a cone shape. Likewise, an isolated heptagon causes the sheet to become saddle-shaped. When producing graphene by known methods, these and other defects are typically present.

The IUPAC compendium of technology states: “previously, descriptions such as graphite layers, carbon layers, or carbon sheets have been used for the term graphene . . . it is not correct to use for a single layer a term which includes the term graphite, which would imply a three-dimensional structure. The term graphene should be used only when the reactions, structural relations or other properties of individual layers are discussed”. Accordingly, while it should be understood that while the terms “graphene” and “graphene layer” as used in the present invention refers only to materials that contain at least some individual layers of single layer sheets, the terms “graphene” and “graphene layer” as used herein should therefore be understood to also include materials where these single layer sheets are present as a part of materials that may additionally include graphite layers, carbon layers, and carbon sheets.

The unique electrical and mechanical properties of graphene have led to interest in its use in a variety of applications. For example, electrochemical energy storage has received great attention for potential applications in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems from intermittent wind and solar sources. Currently, Li-ion batteries are being considered as the leading candidates for hybrid, plug-in hybrid and all electrical vehicles, and possibly for utility applications as well. However, many potential electrode materials (e.g., oxide materials) in Li-ion batteries are limited by slow Li-ion diffusion, poor electron transport in electrodes, and increased resistance at the interface of electrode/electrolyte at high charging-discharging rates.

To improve the charge-discharge rate performance of Li-ion batteries, extensive work has focused on improving Li-ion and/or electron transport in electrodes. The use of nanostructures (e.g., nanoscale size or nanoporous structures) has been widely investigated to improve the Li-ion transport in electrodes by shortening Li-ion insertion/extraction pathway. In addition, a variety of approaches have also been developed to increase electron transport in the electrode materials, such as conductive coating (e.g., carbon), and uses of conductive additives (e.g., conductive oxide wires or networks, and conductive polymers). Recently, TiO₂ has been extensively studied to demonstrate the effectiveness of nanostructures and conductive coating in these devices.

TiO₂ is particularly interesting because it is an abundant, low cost, and environmentally benign material. TiO₂ is also structurally stable during Li-insertion/extraction and is intrinsically safe by avoiding Li electrochemical deposition. These properties make TiO₂ particularly attractive for large scale energy storage.

Another way to improve the Li-ion insertion properties is to introduce hybrid nanostructured electrodes that interconnect nanostructured electrode materials with conductive additive nanophases. For example, hybrid nanostructures, e.g., V₂O₅— carbon nanotube (CNT) or anatase TiO₂—CNT hybrids, LiFePO₄—RuO₂ nanocomposite, and anatase TiO₂—RuO₂ nanocomposite, combined with conventional carbon additives (e.g., Super P carbon or acetylene black) have demonstrated an increased Li-ion insertion/extraction capacity in the hybrid electrodes at high charge/discharge rates.

While the hybrids or nanocomposites offer significant advantages, some of the candidate materials to improve the specific capacity, such as RuO₂ and CNTs, are inherently expensive. In addition, conventional carbon additives at high loading content (e.g., 20 wt % or more) are still needed to ensure good electron transport in fabricated electrodes. To improve high-rate performance and reduce cost of the electrochemically active materials, it is important to identify high surface area, inexpensive and highly conductive nanostructured materials that can be integrated with electrochemical active materials at nanoscale.

Those having ordinary skill in the art recognize that graphene may be the ideal conductive additive for applications such as these hybrid nanostructured electrodes because of its high surface area (theoretical value of 2630 m²/g), which promises improved interfacial contact, the potential for low manufacturing cost as compared to CNTs, and high specific capacity. Recently, high-surface-area graphene sheets were studied for direct Li-ion storage by expanding the layer spacing between the graphene sheets as described in Yoo, E.; Kim, J.; Hosono, E.; Zhou, H.-s.; Kudo, T.; Honma, I. Large Reversible Li Storage of Graphene Nanosheet Families for Use in Rechargeable Lithium Ion Batteries. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 2277-2282. In addition to these studies, graphene has also been used to form composite materials with SnO₂ for improving capacity and cyclic stability of the anode materials as described in Paek, S.-M.; Yoo, E.; Honma, I. Enhanced Cyclic Performance and Lithium Storage Capacity of SnO₂/Graphene Nanoporous Electrodes with Three-Dimensionally Delaminated Flexible Structure. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 72-75.

While these results were promising, they fell short of producing materials exhibiting specific capacity approaching the theoretical possibilities. For example, while it has been shown that graphene may be combined with certain metal oxides, the graphene materials in these studies fall far short of the theoretical maximum conductivity of single-sheet graphene. Further, those having ordinary skill in the art recognize that the carbon:oxygen ratio and the specific surface area of graphene provide an excellent proxy to measure the relative abundance of high conductivity single-sheets in a given sample. This is because the C:O ratio is a good measure of the degree of “surface functionalization” which affects conductivity, and the surface area conveys the percentage of single-sheet graphene in the synthesized powder.

With respect to battery configurations in the prior art, research has been directed toward long life and low cost. Better performance is demonstrated by minimizing the internal resistance and irreversible heat generation. These properties are shown when degradation is minimized over multiple charge/discharge cycles.

Accordingly, those having ordinary skill in the art recognize that improvements to these methods are required to achieve the potential of using graphene nanostructures in these and other applications. Specifically, those skilled in the art recognize the need for new methods that produce nanocomposite materials of graphene and metal oxides that exhibit greater specific capacity than demonstrated in these prior art methods. Further, those having ordinary skill in the art recognize the need for improved batteries that provide lower internal resistance and irreversible heat generation as evidenced by minimal degradation over multiple charge/discharge cycles.

The present invention fulfills those needs, and provides such improved composite nanostructures of graphene layers and metal oxides that exhibit specific capacities heretofore unknown in the prior art. The present invention further provides improved and novel methods for forming these composite nanostructures, and improved and novel devices that take advantage of the new and unique properties exhibited by these materials. The present invention meets these objectives by making nanostructures of graphene layers and metal oxides where the C:O ratio of the graphene layers in these nanostructures is between 15-500:1, and preferably 20-500:1, and the surface area of the graphene layers in these nanostructures is 400-2630 m2/g, and preferably 600-2630 m2/g, as measured by BET nitrogen adsorption at 77K. While those having ordinary skill in the art have recognized the desirability of having C:O ratios and surface areas this high in the graphene of nanostructures of graphene and metal oxides, the prior art methods have failed to produce them.

The present invention further provides batteries of LiFePO₄ cathode and anatase/graphene composite anodes with better performance than those known in the art, and with minimal internal resistance and irreversible heat generation. The unique Li-ion cells of the present invention have demonstrated negligible degradation after 700 cycles at 1 C_(m) rate.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention thus includes a nanocomposite material comprising a metal oxide in electrical communication with at least one graphene layer. The metal oxide is preferably M_(x)O_(y), and where M is selected from the group consisting of Ti, Sn, Ni, Mn, V, Si, Co and combinations thereof. The nanocomposite materials of the present invention are readily distinguished from the prior art because they exhibit a specific capacity of at least twice that of the metal oxide material without the graphene at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 10 C.

For example, while not meant to be limiting, an example where titania is used as the metal oxide, the resulting nanocomposite material has a specific capacity at least twice that of a titania material without graphene at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 10 C. Continuing the example, where titania is used as the metal oxide, the titania may be provided in a mesoporous form, and the mesoporous titania may further be provided in a rutile crystalline structure, or in an anatase crystalline structure.

The nanocomposite material of the present invention preferably is provided as graphene layers with metal oxides uniformly distributed throughout the nanoarchitecture of the layers. Preferably, but not meant to be limiting, the nanocomposite material of the present invention provides a metal oxide in electrical communication with at least one graphene layer that has a thickness between 0.5 and 50 nm. More preferably, but also not meant to be liming, the nanocomposite material of the present invention provides a metal oxide in electrical communication with at least one graphene layer that has a thickness between 2 and 10 nm. Preferably, the carbon to oxygen ratio (C:O) of the graphene in the nanostructures of the present invention is between 15-500:1, and more preferably between 20-500:1. Preferably, the surface area of the graphene in the nanostructures of the present invention is between 400-2630 m2/g, and more preferably between 600-2630 m2/g, as measured by BET nitrogen adsorption at 77K.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for forming the nanocomposite materials of graphene in electrical communication with metal oxide. One method for forming these materials consists of the steps of providing graphene in a first suspension; dispersing the graphene with a surfactant; adding a metal oxide precursor to the dispersed graphene to form a second suspension; and precipitating the metal oxide from the second suspension onto at least one surface of the dispersed graphene. In this manner, a nanocomposite material of at least one metal oxide in electrical communication with at least one graphene layer is thereby formed. The nanocomposite materials formed in this manner are readily distinguished from materials formed by prior art methods because they exhibit a specific capacity of at least twice that of the metal oxide material without the graphene at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 100.

Preferably, but not meant to be limiting, the first suspension is, at least in part, an aqueous suspension and the surfactant is an anionic surfactant. Also not meant to be limiting, a preferred anionic sulfate surfactant is sodium dodecyl sulfate. The method of the present invention may further comprise the step of heating the second suspension from 50 to 500 degrees C. to condense the metal oxide on the graphene surface. The method of the present invention may also further comprise the step of heating the second suspension from 50 to 500 degrees C. to remove the surfactant.

The present invention also encompasses an energy storage device comprising a nanocomposite material having an active metal oxide compound and one graphene layer arranged in a nanoarchitecture. The energy storage devices of the present invention are readily distinguished from prior art energy storage devices because they exhibit a specific capacity of at least twice that of the metal oxide material without the graphene at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 10 C.

For example, while not meant to be limiting, an example where titania is used as the metal oxide, the energy storage device of the present invention has a specific capacity at least twice that of a titania material without graphene at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 100.

Preferably, but not meant to be limiting, the energy storage device of the present invention is provided as having at least one component having a nanocomposite material having graphene layers with metal oxides uniformly distributed throughout the nanoarchitecture of the layers. Also preferably, but not meant to be limiting, the energy storage device of the present invention is an electrochemical device having an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte, and a current collector, wherein at least one of the anode, cathode, electrolyte, and current collector is fabricated, at least in part, from a nanocomposite material having graphene layers with metal oxides uniformly distributed throughout the nanoarchitecture of the layers.

In embodiments where the energy storage device of the present invention includes a cathode fabricated, at least in part, from a nanocomposite material having graphene layers with metal oxides uniformly distributed throughout the nanoarchitecture of the layers, the graphene in the cathode is preferably, but not meant to be limiting, 5% or less of the total weight of the cathode, and more preferably, but also not meant to be limiting, 2.5% or less of the total weight of the cathode. In this manner, the energy storage devices of the present invention are distinguished from prior art devices which are characterized by having more than 5% of the total weight of the cathode as carbon with no graphene.

In embodiments where the energy storage device of the present invention includes an anode fabricated, at least in part, from a nanocomposite material having graphene layers with metal oxides uniformly distributed throughout the nanoarchitecture of the layers, the graphene in the anode is preferably, but not meant to be limiting, 10% or less of the total weight of anode, and more preferably, but also not meant to be limiting, 5% or less of the total weight of anode. In this manner, the energy storage devices of the present invention are distinguished from prior art devices which are characterized by having more than 10% of the total weight of the anode as carbon with no graphene.

One embodiment where the present invention is an energy storage device is as a lithium ion battery. In this embodiment, the lithium ion battery has at least one electrode with at least one graphene layer in electrical communication with titania to form a nanocomposite material, and the nanocomposite material has a specific capacity at least twice that of a titania material without graphene at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 10 C. The electrode of this lithium ion battery may further have multiple nanocomposite material layers uniformly distributed throughout the electrode.

The present invention further includes a lithium ion battery having an anode comprising at least one graphene layer in electrical communication with titania to form a nanocomposite material, a cathode comprising a lithium olivine structure, and an electrolyte. Preferably, the graphene layer has a carbon to oxygen ratio of between 15 to 1 and 500 to 1 and a surface area of between 400 and 2630 m²/g. Preferably, the nanocomposite material has a specific capacity at least twice that of a titania material without graphene material at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 100. Preferably, the olivine structure of the cathode of the lithium ion battery of the present invention is LiMPO₄ where M is selected from the group consisting of Fe, Mn, Co, Ni and combinations thereof.

Preferably, the graphene and titania are sufficiently dispersed in the anode of the lithium ion battery of the present invention such that the specific capacity decays less than 15 percent over 300 charge/discharge cycles.

More preferably, the graphene and titania are sufficiently dispersed in the anode of the lithium ion battery of the present invention such that the specific capacity decays less than 5 percent over 300 charge/discharge cycles.

More preferably, the graphene and titania are sufficiently dispersed in the anode of the lithium ion battery of the present invention such that the specific capacity decays less than 2 percent over 300 charge/discharge cycles.

More preferably, the graphene and titania are sufficiently dispersed in the anode of the lithium ion battery of the present invention such that the specific capacity decays less than 1 percent over 300 charge/discharge cycles.

More preferably, the graphene and titania are sufficiently dispersed in the anode of the lithium ion battery of the present invention such that the specific capacity decays less than 1 percent over 700 charge/discharge cycles.

It is also preferred that the graphene layer of the lithium ion battery of the present invention have a carbon to oxygen ratio of between 15 to 1 and 500 to 1 and a surface area of between 400 and 2630 m²/g.

It is also preferred that the nanocomposite material of the lithium ion battery of the present invention have a specific capacity at least twice that of a titania material without graphene material at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 10 C.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following detailed description of the embodiments of the invention will be more readily understood when taken in conjunction with the following drawing, wherein:

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of the present invention showing anionic sulfate surfactant mediated stabilization of graphene and growth of TiO₂—FGS hybrid nanostructures.

FIG. 2 is a graph showing high energy resolution photoemission spectra of the C 1s region in functionalized graphene sheets (FGS) used in one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 3 are Raman spectra of rutile TiO₂—FGS and FGS in one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 4( a) is a photograph of FGS (left) and SDS-FGS aqueous dispersions (right); FIG. 4( b) is a graph of the UV-Vis absorbance of the SDS-FGS aqueous dispersion.

FIG. 5 is an XRD pattern of one embodiment of the present invention, an anatase TiO₂—FGS and rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrid material. Standard diffraction peaks of anatase TiO₂ (JCPDS No. 21-1272) and rutile TiO₂ (JCPDS No. 21-1276) are shown as vertical bars.

FIG. 6( a)-(g) are TEM and SEM images of the nanocomposite materials of various embodiments of the present invention at selected magnifications.

FIG. 7( a)-(f) are graphs showing the electrical performance of one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7( a) shows the voltage profiles for control rutile TiO₂ and rutile TiO₂—FGS (0.5 wt % FGS) hybrid nanostructures at C/5 charge-discharge rates. FIG. 7( b) shows the specific capacity of control rutile TiO₂ and the rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrids at different charge/discharge rates; FIG. 7( c) shows the cycling performance of the rutile TiO₂—FGS up to 100 cycles at 1 C charge/discharge rates after testing at various rates shown in FIG. 7( b). FIG. 7( d) shows the voltage profiles for control anatase TiO₂ and anatase TiO₂—FGS (2.5 wt % FGS) hybrid nanostructures at C/5 charge-discharge rates. FIG. 7( e) shows the specific capacity of control anatase TiO₂ and the anatase TiO₂—FGS hybrids at different charge/discharge rates; FIG. 7( f) shows the cycling performance of the anatase TiO₂—FGS up to 100 cycles at 1 C charge/discharge rates after testing at various rates shown in FIG. 7( e).

FIG. 8 is a graph showing a plot of coulombic efficiency versus cycle number of TiO₂—FGS hybrids of one embodiment of the present invention at various charge/discharge rate between 1˜3 V vs. Li/Li⁺.

FIG. 9 is a graph showing the capacity of functionalized graphene sheets of one embodiment of the present invention as function of cycling numbers between 1˜3 V vs. Li/Li⁺.

FIG. 10( a) is a graph showing the impedance measurement of coin cells using the electrode materials of control rutile TiO₂ and rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrids with different weight percentage of FGSs. FIG. 10( b) is a graph showing the specific capacity of rutile TiO₂—CNT and rutile TiO₂—FGS at 30 C rate with different percentages of graphene.

FIG. 11 is a graph showing the specific capacity of control rutile TiO₂ (10 wt % Super P) and rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrids (10 wt % FGS) at different charge/discharge rates. The rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrid electrode was prepared by mixing the calcined hybrid with PVDF binder at a mass ratio of 90:10. The control TiO₂ electrode was prepared by mixing control TiO₂ powder, Super P and PVDF binder at a mass ratio of 80:10:10.

FIG. 12 is an SEM image of TiO₂/FGS hybrid materials made in one embodiment of the present invention without using SDS as a stabilizer. As shown, TiO₂ and FGS domains are separated from each other with minor TiO₂ coated on FGS.

FIGS. 13 (a) and (b) are the FESEM image (s) and XRD pattern (b) of a sample of nanostructured LiFePO₄

FIG. 14 are graphs showing the electrochemical cycling at various C rates for (a) anatase TiO₂/graphene, (b) LiFePO₄ (c) LiFePO₄-anatase TiO₂/graphene and voltage profiles of charge/discharge at various C rates for (d) anatase TiO₂/graphene, (e) LiFePO₄ and (f) LiFePO₄-anatase TiO₂/graphene.

FIG. 15 are graphs showing the performance characteristics of the present invention described in the experiments. FIG. 15 (a) shows the dq/dv peaks, FIG. 15 (b) is Ragone plot comparison of LiFePO₄, anatase TiO₂/graphene and LiFePO₄-anatase TiO₂/graphene full-cell and FIG. 15 (c) is a graph showing cycling performance of full cell at 1 C_(m) rate (C_(m): measured C rate).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the invention, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and specific language will be used to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitations of the inventive scope is thereby intended, as the scope of this invention should be evaluated with reference to the claims appended hereto. Alterations and further modifications in the illustrated devices, and such further applications of the principles of the invention as illustrated herein are contemplated as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which the invention relates.

A series of experiments were conducted to demonstrate certain embodiments of the present invention. In some of these experiments, anionic sulfate surfactants were used to assist the stabilization of graphene in aqueous solutions and facilitate the self-assembly of in-situ grown nanocrystalline TiO₂, rutile and anatase, with graphene. These nanostructured TiO₂-graphene hybrid materials were then used for investigation of Li-ion insertion properties. The hybrid materials showed significantly enhanced Li-ion insertion/extraction in TiO₂. The specific capacity was more than doubled at high charge rates, as compared with the pure TiO₂ phase. The improved capacity at high charge-discharge rate may be attributed to increased electrode conductivity in the presence of a percolated graphene network embedded into the metal oxide electrodes. While not to be limiting, these are among the features that distinguish the methods, materials, and devices of the present invention from the prior art.

These experiments thereby demonstrated that the use of graphene as a conductive additive in self-assembled hybrid nanostructures enhances high rate performance of electrochemical active materials. While the metal oxide TiO₂ was selected as a model electrochemical active oxide material, the method of the present invention is equally applicable to all metal oxides.

This set of experiments utilized a one-step synthesis approach to prepare metal oxide-graphene hybrid nanostructures. In these experiments, the reduced and highly conductive form of graphene is hydrophobic and oxides are hydrophilic. The present invention's use of surfactants not only solved the hydrophobic/hydrophilic incompatibility problem, but also provides a molecular template for controlled nucleation and growth of the nanostructured inorganics, resulting in a uniform coating of the metal oxide on the graphene surfaces.

This approach, schematically illustrated in FIG. 1, starts with the dispersion of the graphene layers with an anionic sulfate surfactant. For example, but not meant to be limiting, sodium dodecyl sulfate. The method then proceeds with the self-assembly of surfactants with the metal oxide precursor and the in-situ precipitation of metal oxide precursors to produce the desired oxide phase and morphology.

In a typical preparation of rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrid materials (e.g., 0.5 wt % FGS), 2.4 mg FGSs and 3 mL SDS aqueous solution (0.5 mol/L) were mixed together. The mixture was diluted to 15 mL and sonicated for 10-15 min using a BRANSON SONIFER S-450A, 400 W. 25 mL TiCl₃ (0.12 mol/L) aqueous solution was then added into as-prepared SDS-FGS dispersions while stirring. Then, 2.5 mL H₂O₂ (1 wt %) was added dropwise followed by de-ionized water under vigorous stirring until reaching a total volume of 80 mL. In a similar manner, 0.8, 26.4, and 60 mg FGSs were used to prepare the hybrid materials with 0.17, 5, and 10 wt % FGS, respectively.

Rutile TiO₂—CNT (0.5 wt % carbon nanotubes) hybrid materials were also prepared using corresponding single-wall CNTs (2.4 mg) according to the above method.

In a typical preparation of anatase TiO₂—FGS hybrid materials (e.g., 2.5 wt % FGS), 13 mg FGS and 0.6 mL SDS aqueous solution (0.5 mol/L) were mixed and sonicated to prepare an SDS-FGS dispersion. 25 mL TiCl₃ (0.12 mol/L) aqueous solution was added into as-prepared SDS-FGS dispersions while stirring followed by the addition of 5 mL 0.6 M Na₂SO₄. 2.5 mL H₂O₂ (1 wt %) was then added dropwise followed by addition of de-ionized water under vigorous stirring until reaching a total volume of 80 mL.

All of these resulting mixtures were further stirred in a sealed polypropylene flask at 90° C. for 16 h. The precipitates were separated by centrifuge followed by washing with de-ionized water and ethanol. The centrifuging and washing processes were repeated 3 times. The product was then dried in a vacuum oven at 70° C. overnight and subsequently calcined in static air at 400° C. for 2 h.

The thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated approximately 50 wt % percentage loss of FGSs during calcination in air at 400° C. for 2 h. The weight percentage of the graphene in the hybrid materials was thus correspondingly normalized, which is consistent with TGA of the hybrid materials.

The samples were characterized by XRD patterns obtained on a Philips Xpert X-ray diffractometer using CuK_(α) radiation at λ=1.54 Å. The TEM imaging was performed on a JEOL JSM-2010 TEM operated at 200 kV. SEM images were obtained on an FEI Helios Nanolab dual-beam focused ion beam/scanning electron microscope (FIB/SEM) operated at 2 kV. XPS characterization was performed using a Physical Electronics Quantum 2000 Scanning ESCA Microprobe with a focused monochromatic AlK_(α) X-ray (1486.7 eV) source and a spherical section analyzer. Electrochemical experiments were performed with coin cells (Type 2335, half-cell) using Li foil as counter electrode. The working electrode was prepared using the mixture of calcined TiO₂-FGS or control TiO₂, Super P and poly (vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) binder dispersed in N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) solution. For the preparation of rutile TiO₂ electrode (less than 5 wt % graphene), the mass ratio of rutile TiO₂-hybrid or control rutile TiO₂, Super P and PVDF was 80:10:10. For the preparation of anatase TiO₂ electrode, the mass ratio was 70:20:10 and 80:10:10 for control anatase TiO₂ and anatase TiO₂—FGS hybrid (2.5 wt % FGS), respectively.

Rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrid (10 wt % FGS) electrode was prepared with a mass ratio of hybrid and PVDF binder at 90:10 without Super P. The resultant slurry was then uniformly coated on an aluminum foil current collector and dried overnight in air. The electrolyte used was 1 M LiPF₆ dissolved in a mixture of ethyl carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) with the volume ratio of 1:1. The coin cells were assembled in an argon-filled glove box. The electrochemical performance of TiO₂-graphene was characterized with an Arbin Battery Testing System at room temperature. The electrochemical tests were performed between 3˜1 V vs. Li⁺/Li and C-rate currents applied were calculated based on a rutile TiO₂ theoretical capacity of 168 mAh/g.

Functionalized graphene sheets (FGSs) used in this study were prepared through the thermal expansion of graphite oxide according to the method shown in McAllister, M. J.; LiO, J. L.; Adamson, D. H.; Schniepp, H. C.; Abdala, A. A.; Liu, J.; Herrera-Alonso, M.; Milius, D. L.; CarO, R.; Prud'homme, R. K.; Aksay, I. A. Single Sheet Functionalized Graphene by Oxidation and Thermal Expansion of Graphite. Chem. Mater. 2007, 19, 4396-4404 and Schniepp, H. C.; Li, J. L.; McAllister, M. J.; Sai, H.; Herrera-Alonso, M.; Adamson, D. H.; Prud'homme, R. K.; Car, R.; Saville, D. A.; Aksay, I. A. Functionalized Single Graphene Sheets Derived from Splitting Graphite Oxide. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 8535-8539. As discussed previously, in comparison to the graphene produced by the chemical reduction of graphene oxide, graphene prepared by the thermal expansion approach can have tunable C/O ratios ranging from 10 to 500 and thus its conductivity can be tuned to higher values.

FGSs processing starts with chemical oxidation of graphite flakes to increase the c-axis spacing from 0.34 to 0.7 nm. The resultant graphite oxide is then split by a rapid thermal expansion to yield separated graphene sheets. X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) of FGSs shows a sharp C1s peak indicating good sp² conjugation as shown in FIG. 2. A small shoulder at 286 eV indicates the existence of some C—O bonds corresponding to the epoxy and hydroxyl functional groups on FGSs.

Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-FGS aqueous dispersions were prepared by ultrasonication. Similar to the colloidal stabilization of CNTs using SDS shown in Bonard, J. M.; Stora, T.; Salvetat, J. P.; Maier, F.; Stockli, T.; Duschl, C.; Forro, L.; deHeer, W. A.; Chatelain, A. Purification and Size-Selection of Carbon Nanotubes. Adv. Mater. 1997, 9, 827-831 and Richard, C.; Balavoine, F.; Schultz, P.; Ebbesen, T. W.; Mioskowski, C. Supramolecular Self-Assembly of Lipid Derivatives on Carbon Nanotubes. Science 2003, 300, 775-778, the SDS-FGS aqueous dispersions were stable. Only minor sedimentation was observed after a week at room temperature as shown in FIG. 4 a.

UV-Vis spectrum of the SDS-FGS dispersion showed an absorption peak at 275 nm with a broad absorption background (FIG. 4 b) consistent with that of aqueous stable graphene sheets. Raman spectra of FGS and calcined TiO₂—FGS showed similar G and D bands structure of carbon, indicating that the structure of graphene is maintained during the synthesis procedure, as shown in FIG. 3.

A mild, low-temperature (below 100° C.) crystallization process was carried out to form crystalline TiO₂ with controlled crystalline phase (i.e., rutile and anatase) on the graphene sheets. The low temperature condition was also important in preventing aggregation of graphene sheets at elevated temperatures. Consistent with previous studies, by the low-temperature oxidative hydrolysis and crystallization, rutile TiO₂—FGS is obtained with a minor anatase phase. To obtain anatase TiO₂—FGS, additional sodium sulfate was added to the solution to promote the formation of the anatase phase. XRD patterns of the TiO₂—FGS hybrids shown in FIG. 5 show the formation of nanocrystalline rutile and anatase metal oxides with an estimated crystalline domain size of 6 and 5 nm, respectively.

Typical morphology of FGSs is shown in the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of FIG. 6 a. The free standing 2D FGSs are not perfectly flat but display intrinsic microscopic roughening and out-of-plane deformations (wrinkles). More than 80% of the FGSs have been shown to be single sheets by AFM characterization, when they were deposited onto an atomically smooth, highly oriented pyrolytic carbon (HOPG) template. Some regions appeared as multilayers in the TEM images, which may represent the regions that either have not been fully exfoliated or the regions that have restacked together due to capillary and van der Waals forces experienced during the drying process.

FIGS. 6 b to 6 e show TEM and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of as-grown rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrid nanostructures. FIGS. 6 b and 6 c show planar views of FGSs covered with nanostructured TiO₂. Both the edge of graphene and the nanostructure of the TiO₂ are clearly observable in the higher magnification image of FIG. 6 c.

The nanostructured TiO₂ is composed of rod-like rutile nanocrystals organized in parallel interspaced with the SDS surfactants. The SEM image of FIG. 6 d shows randomly oriented rod-like nanostructured rutile lying on the FGS. The cross-section TEM image further confirms that the nanostructured rutile mostly lies on the FGS with the rod length parallel to the graphene surface (FIG. 6 e). FIGS. 6 f and 6 g show plane-view TEM images of anatase TiO₂—FGS hybrid nanostructures. FGSs underneath are covered with spherical aggregated anatase TiO₂ nanoparticles. The dark field TEM image (FIG. 6 g) further confirms crystalline TiO₂ nanoparticles (bright regions) with a diameter of 5 nm spreading over the graphene surface.

It is important to note that the SDS surfactant determines the interfacial interactions between graphene and the oxide materials in promoting the formation of TiO₂-hybrid nanostructures. When the surfactant molecules are added, they can adsorb onto graphene through the hydrophobic tails making FGSs highly dispersed and interact with the oxide precursor through the hydrophilic head groups. The cooperative interactions between the surfactant, the graphene, and the oxide precursors lead to the homogeneous mixing of the components, in which the hydrophobic graphene most likely resides in the hydrophobic domains of the SDS micelles. As nanocrystalline TiO₂ formed, as-grown nanoparticles are then coated to the graphene surfaces since sulfate head groups have strong bonding with TiO₂. Without the surfactant, some of the surface functional sites (e.g., carboxylate, epoxy, and hydroxyl groups) on FGSs may provide bonding to TiO₂ nanoparticles. However, only a very small amount of the metal oxides will then be attached to graphene through such interactions due to the low number density of these functional groups on FGSs. Thus, in the control samples without the surfactant, FGSs are barely covered with the metal oxides along with phase separation from TiO₂ as shown in FIG. 12. This indicates the important role of SDS in the formation of the self-assembled hybrid nanostructures.

To examine the effectiveness of FGSs in improving the rate capability of the electrode, we investigated the Li-ion insertion/extraction properties in the TiO₂—FGS hybrid materials. The electrodes were fabricated in a conventional way by mixing the hybrid materials with Super P carbon additive and a PVDF binder and thus tested in Li-ion battery coin cell. The rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrid showed a slope profile of voltage-capacity relationship at both the charge and discharge state as shown in FIG. 7 a, similar to that of control rutile TiO₂ and nanostructured rutile studied previously as reported in Hu, Y. S.; Kienle, L.; Guo, Y. G.; Maier, J. High Lithium Electroactivity of Nanometer-Sized Rutile TiO₂ . Adv. Mater. 2006, 18, 1421-1426. As shown in FIG. 7 b, with the incorporation of FGSs, the specific capacity of rutile TiO₂ in the hybrids (0.5 wt % FGS) increased at all charge/discharge rates compared with the control rutile TiO₂. The relative increase in specific capacity is especially larger at higher rates. For instance, at a rate of 30 C (2 min of charging or discharging), the specific capacity of the rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrid material is 87 mAh/g which is more than double the high rate capacity (35 mAh/g) of the control rutile TiO₂ as shown in FIG. 7 b.

The voltage-capacity profile of anatase TiO₂—FGS (2.5 wt % FGS) at C/5 rate shows plateaus around 1.8 V (discharge process) and 1.9 V (charge process) is shown in FIG. 7 d, which is similar to that of control anatase TiO₂ and nanostructured anatase. The plateaus are related to the phase transition between the tetragonal and orthorhombic phases with Li insertion into anatase TiO₂. Similar to rutile TiO₂—FGS, the specific capacity of the anatase TiO₂—FGS hybrid is enhanced at all charge-discharge rates as shown in FIG. 7 e. The specific capacity of the anatase TiO₂—FGS at the rate of 30 C is as high as 96 mAh/g compared with 25 mAh/g of control anatase TiO₂. Furthermore, the coulombic efficiencies of TiO₂—FGS hybrids at various charge/discharge rates are greater than 98% as shown in FIG. 8. Both rutile and anatase TiO₂—FGS hybrids show good capacity retention of the Li-ion insertion/extraction with over 90% capacity retention after 100 cycles at a 1 C rate, as shown in FIGS. 7 c and 7 f.

To identify the capacity contribution from FGSs, the Li-ion insertion/extraction behavior of the FGSs was also studied. The initial capacity of FGS of 100 mAh/g with 50% irreversible loss is observed between 1-3 V potential window applied, which is consistent with a recent study of Li-ion storage in graphene described in Yoo, E.; Kim, J.; Hosono, E.; Zhou, H.-s.; Kudo, T.; Honma, I. Large Reversible Li Storage of Graphene Nanosheet Families for Use in Rechargeable Lithium Ion Batteries. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 2277-2282. However, the specific capacity of FGS rapidly decreases to 25 mAh/g within 10 cycles. At higher charge/discharge rates, FGS has almost negligible Li-ion insertion as shown in FIG. 9. For 1 wt % FGS hybrids, the capacity contribution from FGS itself after 2 cycles can be a maximum value of 0.4 mAh/g. Thus, the increase of the specific capacity at high rate is not attributed to the capacity of the graphene additive itself in the hybrid materials.

To further understand the improved high-rate performance, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements on rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrid materials were performed after cycles. The Nyquist plots of the rutile TiO₂—FGS electrode materials with different percentage of graphene cycled in electrolyte, as shown in FIG. 10( a), all show depressed semicycles at high frequencies. As electrolyte and electrode fabrication are similar between each electrode, the high frequency semicircle should relate to the internal resistance of the electrode. We estimate that the resistivity of the cells decreased from 93Ω for the pure TiO₂ to 73Ω with the addition of only 0.5 wt % graphene.

By increasing the graphene percentage in the hybrid materials further, the specific capacity is slightly increased, e.g., to 93 mAh/g in the hybrid material with 5 wt % FGS, indicating that a kinetic capacity limitation may be reached by only improving the electrode conductivity with the incorporation of FGSs as shown in FIG. 10( b). Rutile TiO₂—CNT hybrids prepared and tested under similar conditions showed poorer performance at identical carbon loadings than the rutile TiO₂—FGS hybrid anodes, as shown in the yellow bar in FIG. 10( b). Similarly, hybrid nanostructures prepared using solution reduced graphene oxides also showed even poorer performance, indicating the importance of the highly conductive graphene phase of FGSs.

To study the properties of electrode materials without any Super P carbon, Li-ion insertion/extraction properties of the rutile TiO₂—FGS (10 wt % graphene) were compared with control rutile TiO₂ with 10 wt % Super P at high charge-discharge rates. The hybrid material showed a much higher capacity at all charge-discharge rate, as shown in FIG. 11. This result indeed confirms that the graphene in the self-assembled hybrid materials is more effective than the commonly used Super P carbon materials in improving high rate performance of the electrode materials.

The high rate performance is important for applications where fast charge and discharge is needed, such as in load leveling utility applications. The simple self-assembly approach, and the potential low manufacturing cost of graphene of the present invention, thus provide a new pathway for large scale applications of novel hybrid nanocomposite materials for energy storage.

A further set of experiments were conducted to examine Li-ion batteries made with LiFePO₄ cathode and anatase TiO₂ based anodes. In these experiments, for cathode, LiFePO₄ was selected because of its stability, low cost and environmentally friendliness. While having a lower voltage vs. Li of 3.45V, than many other cathode compositions, LiFePO₄ has been shown to exhibit flat discharge/charge curves during two-phase Li extraction/insertion process and excellent cycling stability due to its unique ordered olivine structure. Similarly, titanium oxide based materials including TiO₂-polymorphs and Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ have been shown to exhibit a relative high voltage vs. Li (1˜2V), but have open structures that allow Li-insertion/extraction without much structural straining, thus potentially a long cycle life. In addition, the relative high voltage vs. Li of the TiO₂-base anodes helps to avoid SEI layer formation, making the battery much safer than the graphite anodes used commercially. Previously, spinel Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ and TiO₂ (B) have been used as stable anode. However, the anode materials require additional step to synthesize starting from TiO₂ materials.

Direct use of TiO₂ would be a low-cost and efficient way to make full cell battery for stationary energy storage. One of disadvantage of TiO₂ includes low conductivity and therefore slow electrochemical kinetics. In this study, a full cell Li-ion battery using LiFePO₄ cathode and anatase TiO₂/graphene anode were demonstrated. The LiFePO₄-anatase TiO₂/graphene cells were evaluated for electrochemical performance.

Fine structured LiFePO₄ was synthesized using LiCOOCH₃.2H₂O (reagent grade, procured from Sigma), FeC₂O₄.2H₂O (99%, procured from Aldrich), NH₄H₂PO₄ (99.999%, procured from Sigma-Aldrich), oleic acid (FCC, FG, procured from Aldrich) and paraffin wax (ASTM D 87, mp. 53˜57° C., procured from Aldrich). NH₄H₂PO₄ was milled with oleic acid for 1 h using high energy mechanical mill (HEMM, SPEX 8000M) in a stainless steel vial and balls. After paraffin wax was added and milled for 30 min, iron oxalate was added and milled for 10 min. Finally, Li acetate was added and milled for 10 min. The overall molar ratio is Li:Fe:P:Oleic acid=1:1:1:1 with paraffin addition twice the weight of oleic acid. The precursor paste was dried in oven at 110° C. for 30 min followed by heat-treatment in tube furnace at 500° C. for 8 h under UHP-3% H₂/97% Ar gas flow with ramping rate of 5° C./min.

After LiFePO₄ was synthesized, 10% carbon black by weight was added and milled in planetary mill for 4 h (Retsch 100CM) at 400 rpm. Anatase TiO₂/graphene composite (2.5 wt % Graphene) was obtained by self assembly approach described herein. X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern (Philips Xpert) was obtained using CuKα (1.54 Å) radiation. Microstructure of LiFePO₄ was analyzed by a field-emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM, FEI Nova 600).

For electrochemical evaluations, the cathode and anode comprised of active material, Super P and poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) binder were dispersed in N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) solution in a weight ratio of 80:10:10 for the anatase TiO₂/graphene anode and 90:3:7 for LiFePO₄/C cathode, respectively. Both cathode and anode slurries were then coated on an Al foil. The performance of LiFePO₄ and anatase TiO₂/graphene electrodes were evaluated, both in half and full 2325 coin cells (National Research Council, Canada) at room temperature in 1M LiPF₆ in EC/DMC (2:1) (ethyl carbonate/dimethyl carbonate) electrolyte, using an Arbin Battery Tester (Model BT-2000, Arbin Instruments, College Station, Tex.).

The half-cells using Li as anode were tested between 4.3V and 2V for LiFePO₄ and 3V to 1V for anatase TiO₂/graphene at various C-rate currents based on the theoretical capacity of 170 mAh/g for both cathode and anode. Due to the initial irreversible loss observed for anatase TiO₂/graphene anode, LiFePO₄ loading was ˜3 mg/cm² and ˜1 mg/cm² for anatase TiO₂/graphene in full cells and tested between 2.5V and 1V where energy and power density was calculated based on the anode weight which is the limiting electrode.

Additional experiments were also conducted to demonstrate alternate paths for fabricating TiO₂/graphene anodes. In the first of these experiments, titania/graphene composites (aqueous based, 90 and 72 wt % P-25) were fabricated. In the first of these experiments, an aqueous method using a film type application was shown for forming titania/graphene composites of 90/10 wt % and 72/28 wt % (P-25). To prepare the 90:10 (wt %) titania:graphene suspensions, 23 mg graphene (Vorbeck Materials LLC) was dispersed in 50 ml H₂O using 2.3 mg (10 wt %) CTAB (cetyl trimethylammonium bromide) surfactant and ultrasonicated for 15 minutes. For the 72:28 (wt %) titania:graphene suspensions, 77.8 mg of graphene (Vorbeck Materials LLC) was dispersed in 50 ml H₂O using 7.78 mg CTAB (cetyl trimethylammonium bromide) surfactant and ultrasonicated for 15 minutes. In a second container, 200 mg nanosized titania powder (Degussa P25) was dispersed in 50 ml H₂O by stirring and ultrasonic mixing for 10 minutes then slowly added to the graphene suspension. The final suspension was then mixed for an additional 4 hours. After mixing, the titania:graphene suspension was filtered, air dried then calcined at 400° C. in a H₂/Ar atmosphere for 3 hours.

To prepare the test electrodes, 0.5 ml of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) binder dispersed in N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) solution (0.5 g/20 ml) was added to 0.1125 g of the composite powder and homogenized for 10 minutes. The final slurry was then coated on an Al current collector using a roll applicator (˜60 micron). Slurry rheology was adjusted using NMP content and viscosities in the range of approximately 1000-5000 cps produced good quality films. After drying on a hot plate for 5 minutes, circular test electrodes were made using a 9/16″ punch. The half-cells (2325 coin cell, National Research Council, Canada) with polypropylene membrane separator (Celgard, Inc.), Li metal anode and reference in 1M LiPF₆ in EC/DMC (1:1 v/v) (ethyl carbonate/dimethyl carbonate) electrolyte were assembled in a glove box (Mbraun, Inc.) filled with ultra highly purity (UHP) argon. The electrochemical performance of the TiO₂/graphene anode was evaluated using an Arbin Battery Tester BT-2000 (Arbin Inst., College Station, Tex.) at room temperature. The half-cell was tested between 3V and 1V vs. Li at various C rate current based on a theoretical capacity of 168 mAh/g (i.e., 1 C=168 mAh·g⁻¹) for anatase.

In the next set of these experiments, an aqueous method using a tape application was shown for forming titania/graphene composites of 90/10 wt % and 72/28 wt % (P-25).

To prepare the 90:10 (wt %) titania:graphene suspensions, 23 mg graphene (Vorbeck Materials LLC) was dispersed in 50 ml H2O using 2.3 mg (10 wt %) CTAB (cetyl trimethylammonium bromide) surfactant and ultrasonicated for 15 minutes. For the 72:28 (wt %) titania:graphene suspensions, 77.8 mg of graphene (Vorbeck Materials LLC) was dispersed in 50 ml H2O using 7.78 mg CTAB (cetyl trimethylammonium bromide) surfactant and ultrasonicated for 15 minutes. In a second container, 200 mg nanosized titania powder (Degussa P25) was dispersed in 50 ml H2O by stirring and ultrasonic mixing for 10 minutes then slowly added to the graphene suspension. The final suspension was then mixed for an additional 4 hours. After mixing, the titania:graphene suspension was filtered, air dried then calcined at 400° C. in a H2/Ar atmosphere for 3 hours.

For the preparation of P-25/graphene tapes (90 wt % P-25), 222.2 mg of graphene was dispersed in 250 mL H2O using 23 mg of CTAB surfactant and sonicated for 15 min. In a separate container, 2.0 g P-25 was dispersed in 100 mL water by sonication (10 min). The P-25 suspension was slowly added to the graphene dispersion upon stirring and stirred for 4 h. The slurry was filtered, air-dried, and calcined at 400° C. in a H2/Ar for 3 h.

To prepare P-25/graphene composite tapes, the calcined powder was first dispersed in water and 7 wt % of PTFE suspension (65 wt % in water, Aldrich) was added upon stirring. After 3 additional hours stirring, the mixture was filtered and dried at 90° C. for 30 min. The powder/PTFE green body was then calendared to the desired thickness (˜1-100 microns) using a three-roll mill.

Circular test electrodes were made using a 9/16″ punch and dried overnight at 110° C. in a vacuum oven. The half-cells (2325 coin cell, National Research Council, Canada) with polypropylene membrane separator (Celgard, Inc.), Li metal anode and reference in 1M LiPF6 in EC/DMC (1:1 v/v) (ethyl carbonate/dimethyl carbonate) electrolyte were assembled in a glove box (Mbraun, Inc.) filled with ultra highly purity (UHP) argon. The electrochemical performance of the TiO2/graphene anode was then evaluated using an Arbin Battery Tester BT-2000 (Arbin Inst., College Station, Tex.) at room temperature. The half-cell was tested between 3V and 1V vs. Li at various C rate current based on a theoretical capacity of 168 mAh/g (i.e., 1 C=168 mAh·g⁻¹) for anatase.

In the next set of these experiments, a non-aqueous method also using a tape application was shown for forming titania/graphene composites of 90/10 wt % and 72/28 wt % (P-25). Nanosized titania powder (Degussa P25) and graphene (Vorbeck Materials LLC) were dispersed in NMP using ultrasonic mixing (30 min) in 90:10 and 72:28 wt % ratios. Total solids loadings between approximately 3-12 wt % were typically useful in preparing the initial suspensions. To these slurries 10 wt % (relative to the solids content) of PVDF binder was added and the mixture stirred 5-16 hours and homogenized if needed. Slurry rheology was adjusted using NMP and viscosities in the range of approximately 1000-5000 cps to produce good quality films.

The final slurry was then coated on an Al current collector using a roll applicator (˜60 micron). After drying on a hot plate for 5 minutes, circular test electrodes were made using a 9/16″ punch. The half-cells (2325 coin cell, National Research Council, Canada) with polypropylene membrane separator (Celgard, Inc.), Li metal anode and reference in 1M LiPF₆ in EC/DMC (1:1 v/v) (ethyl carbonate/dimethyl carbonate) electrolyte were assembled in a glove box (Mbraun, Inc.) filled with ultra highly purity (UHP) argon. The electrochemical performance of the TiO₂/graphene anode was evaluated using an Arbin Battery Tester BT-2000 (Arbin Inst., College Station, Tex.) at room temperature. The half-cell was tested between 3V and 1V vs. Li at various C rate current based on a theoretical capacity of 168 mAh/g (i.e., 1 C=168 mAh·g⁻¹) for anatase.

LiFePO₄ was synthesized using molten surfactant approach shown in FIG. 13 where nano-sized LiFePO₄ has been synthesized during the heat-treatment mimicking micelle or hydrothermal approach but with well crystallized particles. The X-ray diffraction analysis (FIG. 13) of LiFePO₄ shows lattice parameters of a=10.329 Å, b=6.005 Å, c=4.691 Å (R_(p): 2.31, R_(wp): 3.06, R_(exp): 2.93) obtained via Rietveld refinement that matched closely to the ideally crystallized LiFePO₄(JCPDS 81-1173, Pnma(62), a=10.33 Å, b=6.010 Å, c=4.692 Å). The crystallite size was determined to be ˜50 nm from the X-ray analysis; primary particle size ranges from 100 to 200 nm from FESEM observation. Anatase TiO₂/graphene composite show anatase TiO₂ nanoparticles (<20 nm) coated on graphene sheets.

The synthesized anatase TiO₂/graphene, LiFePO₄ and full-cell configuration have been tested at various C-rates as shown in FIG. 14 (a-e). As shown in FIG. 14 a. and d., anatase TiO₂/graphene electrodes demonstrates flat voltage curves at 1.84 V, indicating a classical two-phase electrochemical reaction process of the Li-insertion/extraction. Diffusion of Li ions in anatase TiO₂ framework is known to accompany symmetry transformations between I4₁/amd and orthorhombic Pmn2₁ when x=0.5 (Li_(x)TiO₂), resulting in a net increase of ˜4 vol % of the unit cell leading to capacity fade. Hence, for bulk anatase TiO₂, x=0.5 is often considered as the maximum electrochemical insertion of Li. However, the reduction in particle size into the nano-regime (<100 nm) alternates the two phase equilibrium phenomenon in the bulk to more of solid solution like Li uptake at the surface thus leading to increased capacity over 0.5 Li per unit formula. As shown in FIG. 14 (a), nano-sized anatase TiO₂/graphene composite gives more than 175 mAh/g (>0.5 Li) at C/5 rate and demonstrates good cycling capability. The anatase TiO₂/graphene also exhibited much higher rate response than that of LiFePO₄, reaching 90 mAh/g at 30 C (equivalent of measured 60 C_(m) rate). The LiFePO₄ electrode is characterized by a flat potential at around 3.45 V vs. Li from two-phase Li-extraction/insertion with specific capacity of 110 mAh/g and 71 mAh/g at 5 C and 10 C (equivalent 8 C_(m) and 24 C_(m)-rate), respectively. The rate capacity of the full cell (FIG. 14( c)) is lower than both cathode and anode half cells due to the lower electronic and ionic conductivity of both cathode and anode compared to Li metal used in half cells. Based on capacity limiting electrode, anatase TiO₂/graphene, the LiFePO₄-anatase TiO₂/graphene full cell delivered ˜120 mAh/g at C/2 rate based on anode weight.

Enhancing rate performance is vital not only for achieving higher power but also for minimizing polarization from internal resistance where the latter lead to exothermic irreversible heat generation Q_(irr)=Iηt+I²Rt (I: current, η: absolute value of electrode polarization, R: Ohmic resistance, t: time) which plays critical role in heat management required for scaled up systems. Such heat control can extend the cycle life of Li-ion battery.

FIG. 15 (a) shows dq/dv peaks of all electrodes tested at C/5 rate where full cell potential of 1.6V matches the voltage difference between cathode and anode peaks. Ragone plot of all three cells based on active material weight are compared in FIG. 15 (b), the energy density of the full cell is limited by the anatase TiO₂/graphene due to the same specific capacity but lower voltage compared to LiFePO₄ whereas the power density is limited by the LiFePO₄ cathode. The full cell power density of 4.5 kW/kg and energy density of 263 Wh/kg based on capacity limiting anatase TiO₂/graphene anode weight lies within these two limitations with LiFePO₄ cathode limiting the rate, which is opposite to conventional Li-ion batteries using graphite anode.

The cycling performance of the full cell battery at 1 C_(m) rate shown in FIG. 15 (c) indicates almost no fade even after 700 cycles with columbic efficiency reaching 100% over the entire cycling test except for the initial few cycles where irreversible loss has been observed. Such a stable full cell cycling performance is unknown in the prior art. The results confirm the ideal reversibility of the lithium ion batteries based on a combination of LiFePO₄-anatase TiO₂/graphene and the absence of losses due to parasitic processes, such as the electrolyte decomposition.

With emphasis on long life and low cost, along with safety, for the stationary applications, batteries of LiFePO₄ cathode and anatase/graphene composite anode have been optimized individually to better performance by minimizing the internal resistance and irreversible heat generation. While with relative low energy density, the unique Li-ion cells made from the optimized electrodes demonstrated negligible degradation after 700 cycles at 1 C_(m) rate. The excellent cycling performance makes the Li-ion battery of the present invention a particularly excellent storage technology for stationary energy storage or in particular in community storage (<100 KWhs).

While the invention has been illustrated and described in detail in the drawings and foregoing description, the same is to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character. Only certain embodiments have been shown and described, and all changes, equivalents, and modifications that come within the spirit of the invention described herein are desired to be protected. Any experiments, experimental examples, or experimental results provided herein are intended to be illustrative of the present invention and should not be considered limiting or restrictive with regard to the invention scope. Further, any theory, mechanism of operation, proof, or finding stated herein is meant to further enhance understanding of the present invention and is not intended to limit the present invention in any way to such theory, mechanism of operation, proof, or finding.

Thus, the specifics of this description and the attached drawings should not be interpreted to limit the scope of this invention to the specifics thereof. Rather, the scope of this invention should be evaluated with reference to the claims appended hereto. In reading the claims it is intended that when words such as “a”, “an”, “at least one”, and “at least a portion” are used there is no intention to limit the claims to only one item unless specifically stated to the contrary in the claims. Further, when the language “at least a portion” and/or “a portion” is used, the claims may include a portion and/or the entire items unless specifically stated to the contrary. Likewise, where the term “input” or “output” is used in connection with an electric device or fluid processing unit, it should be understood to comprehend singular or plural and one or more signal channels or fluid lines as appropriate in the context. Finally, all publications, patents, and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the extent not inconsistent with the present disclosure as if each were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference and set forth in its entirety herein. 

1. A lithium ion battery having an anode comprising at least one graphene layer in electrical communication with titania to form a nanocomposite material, a cathode comprising a lithium olivine structure, and an electrolyte.
 2. The lithium ion battery of claim 1 wherein the graphene layer has a carbon to oxygen ratio of between 15 to 1 and 500 to 1 and a surface area of between 400 and 2630 m²/g.
 3. The lithium ion battery of claim 1 wherein the nanocomposite material has a specific capacity at least twice that of a titania material without graphene material at a charge/discharge rate greater than about 10 C.
 4. The lithium ion battery of claim 1 wherein the olivine structure is LiMPO4 and M is selected from the group consisting of Fe, Mn, Co, Ni and combinations thereof.
 5. A lithium ion battery having an anode comprising at least one graphene layer in electrical communication with titania to form a nanocomposite material, a cathode comprising a lithium olivine structure, and an electrolyte wherein the graphene and titania is sufficiently dispersed such that the specific capacity decays less than 15 percent over 300 cycles.
 6. A lithium ion battery having an anode comprising at least one graphene layer in electrical communication with titania to form a nanocomposite material, a cathode comprising a lithium olivine structure, and an electrolyte wherein the graphene and titania is sufficiently dispersed such that the specific capacity decays less than 5 percent over 300 cycles.
 7. A lithium ion battery having an anode comprising at least one graphene layer in electrical communication with titania to form a nanocomposite material, a cathode comprising a lithium olivine structure, and an electrolyte wherein the graphene and titania is sufficiently dispersed such that the specific capacity decays less than 2 percent over 300 cycles.
 8. A lithium ion battery having an anode comprising at least one graphene layer in electrical communication with titania to form a nanocomposite material, a cathode comprising a lithium olivine structure, and an electrolyte wherein the graphene and titania is sufficiently dispersed such that the specific capacity decays less than 1 percent over 300 cycles.
 9. A lithium ion battery having an anode comprising at least one graphene layer in electrical communication with titania to form a nanocomposite material, a cathode comprising a lithium olivine structure, and an electrolyte wherein the graphene and titania is sufficiently dispersed such that the specific capacity decays less than 1 percent over 700 cycles.
 10. The lithium ion battery of claim 5 wherein the graphene layer has a carbon to oxygen ratio of between 15 to 1 and 500 to 1 and a surface area of between 400 and 2630 m²/g.
 11. The lithium ion battery of claim 5 wherein the nanocomposite material has a specific capacity at least twice that of a titania material without graphene material at a charge/discharge rate greater than about
 100. 12. The lithium ion battery of claim 5 wherein the olivine structure is LiMPO4 and M is selected from the group consisting of Fe, Mn, Co, Ni and combinations thereof. 